Aurelian: The Most Renowned of All Emperors - John F White
The Roman Emperor Aurelian: Restorer of the World
Introduction
The Roman Empire was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in history, but it also faced many challenges and crises throughout its long existence. One of the most critical periods was the third century CE, when the empire was beset by external invasions, internal rebellions, economic decline, political instability, and military anarchy. The empire seemed on the verge of collapse, until a series of strong and capable emperors emerged to restore order and unity. One of these emperors was Aurelian, who reigned from 270 to 275 CE. He was a remarkable leader who won a series of decisive victories against various enemies, both foreign and domestic, and reunited the empire after it had split into three rival states. He also initiated several reforms to improve the administration, economy, religion, and defense of the empire. He earned the title of restitutor orbis, or "restorer of the world", for his achievements.
The Roman Emperor Aurelian : Restorer of the World John F White
In this article, we will explore the life and career of Aurelian, from his humble origins to his glorious triumphs, from his ambitious reforms to his tragic death. We will also examine his legacy and impact on the history of Rome and the world.
Aurelian's Early Life and Career
Birth and Origins
Aurelian was born on September 9, 214 CE, in a region near the Danube River that was part of Moesia Superior at that time. His full name was Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, and he belonged to a modest family of provincial origin. His father was a colonist or a small landowner, while his mother was a priestess of the sun god Sol Invictus. According to some sources, he had a sister named Claudia, who married a senator named Tullius Varro.
Aurelian grew up in a turbulent era, when the Roman Empire faced constant threats from various barbarian tribes along its borders. He received a basic education in Latin and Greek, but he also learned how to fight and survive in a harsh environment. He developed a strong physique, a courageous spirit, and a loyal character.
Military Service under Gallienus and Claudius Gothicus
Aurelian joined the Roman army around 235 CE, when he was about 21 years old. He started as a common soldier, but he soon rose through the ranks due to his bravery and skill. He served under several emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century, but he distinguished himself especially under Gallienus (253-268 CE) and Claudius Gothicus (268-270 CE), who were both renowned generals.
Under Gallienus, Aurelian became the commander of the cavalry, and he fought against various enemies, such as the Alemanni, the Goths, the Heruli, and the usurper Postumus, who had established the Gallic Empire in the west. He also participated in the suppression of several rebellions by other generals, such as Aureolus and Ingenuus. He was loyal to Gallienus until the end, even though he was aware of his flaws and weaknesses.
When Gallienus was assassinated by a conspiracy of officers in 268 CE, Aurelian supported Claudius Gothicus as his successor. Claudius was a popular and respected leader who had a close relationship with Aurelian. Together, they defeated a massive invasion of Goths at the Battle of Naissus in 269 CE, saving the Balkans and Italy from destruction. They also crushed another revolt by Aureolus, who had allied himself with the Goths. However, Claudius died of the plague in 270 CE, after a short but successful reign.
Rise to Power and Challenges
After Claudius' death, his brother Quintillus briefly became emperor, but he was soon killed or committed suicide after losing the support of the army and the Senate. The soldiers then proclaimed Aurelian as emperor in September 270 CE, recognizing his military achievements and leadership qualities. Aurelian accepted the purple with reluctance, knowing the dangers and difficulties that awaited him.
As emperor, Aurelian faced a daunting situation. The Roman Empire was divided into three parts: the Gallic Empire in the west, ruled by Postumus and his successors; the Palmyrene Empire in the east, ruled by Zenobia and her son Vaballathus; and the central part, which was under Aurelian's control but also under constant attack by various barbarian tribes. Moreover, the empire was plagued by economic problems, such as inflation, corruption, and poverty; religious conflicts, such as the rise of Christianity and other cults; and social unrest, such as riots and revolts. Aurelian had to deal with all these issues while also facing numerous rivals and conspirators who wanted to overthrow him.
Aurelian's Military Campaigns
Defeating the Germanic Tribes in Europe
Aurelian's first priority was to secure the borders of his domain and repel the invaders who threatened his lands. He launched a series of campaigns against various Germanic tribes who had crossed the Rhine and Danube rivers and raided the provinces of Gaul, Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dacia, Moesia, and Thrace. He fought against the Alemanni, the Juthungi, the Vandals, the Sarmatians, and the Carpi. He won several battles against them, such as at Placentia (270 CE), Fano (271 CE), Pavia (271 CE), Mediolanum (271 CE), Sirmium (271 CE), Naissus (272 CE), and Nicopolis ad Istrum (272 CE). He also negotiated treaties with some of them, granting them lands or subsidies in exchange for peace and alliance. He managed to restore stability and security in most of these regions by 272 CE.
Building the Aurelian Walls in Rome
Aurelian also took measures to protect Rome itself from potential attacks. The city had not been besieged or sacked since the Gauls invaded it in 390 BCE, but it had become vulnerable due to its lack of fortifications and its distance from the frontiers. Aurelian decided to build a new wall around Rome that would enclose an area of about 14 square kilometers (5.4 square miles). The wall was made of concrete faced with brick, and it had a height of about 8 meters (26 feet) and a thickness of about 4 meters (13 feet). It had 18 main gates, 379 towers, and several posterns and windows. The construction of the wall began in 271 CE and was completed in 275 CE by Aurelian's successors. The wall was named after him and became known as the Aurelian Walls. It proved to be an effective defense for Rome for centuries to come.
Conquering the Palmyrene Empire in the East
Aurelian's Death and Legacy
Assassination by a Conspiracy of Officials
Aurelian's reign was short but glorious, lasting only about five years. However, it also came to a sudden and tragic end. In 275 CE, Aurelian was preparing to launch a major campaign against the Sassanian Empire, hoping to take advantage of their weak leadership after the death of Shapur I in 272 CE. He had already secured his eastern provinces and gathered a large army for his expedition. However, before he could set out, he was assassinated by a conspiracy of some of his officials near Byzantium (modern Istanbul), in a place called Caenophrurium.
The exact details and motives of the conspiracy are unclear and disputed by different sources. According to some accounts, Aurelian was killed by his secretary Eros, who had forged a list of names of people that Aurelian supposedly wanted to execute. Eros showed this list to some of the potential victims, who then decided to kill Aurelian before he could kill them. According to other accounts, Aurelian was killed by his praetorian prefect Mucapor, who had been offended by Aurelian's harsh criticism of his performance. According to yet other accounts, Aurelian was killed by some of his generals or tribunes, who feared that he would punish them for their failures or crimes.
Whatever the case may be, Aurelian's assassination was a shock and a loss for the Roman Empire. His soldiers and subjects mourned him deeply and honored him with a magnificent funeral and a splendid tomb in Rome. His wife Ulpia Severina may have briefly ruled as empress after his death, until a new emperor was chosen by the Senate.
Succession by Tacitus and Probus
After Aurelian's death, there was a brief interregnum in which no one claimed the imperial throne. The Senate eventually elected Marcus Claudius Tacitus as emperor in November 275 CE. Tacitus was an elderly and respected senator who had no military experience but had a reputation for honesty and wisdom. He accepted the purple with reluctance and tried to continue Aurelian's policies and reforms. He also avenged Aurelian's murder by executing his assassins and their accomplices.
Tacitus faced several challenges during his short reign. He had to deal with invasions by the Goths and the Heruli in Asia Minor and Pontus, which he managed to repel with some difficulty. He also had to face a revolt by his half-brother Florianus, who claimed the throne in Syria with the support of some troops. However, Florianus was killed by his own soldiers before he could confront Tacitus.
Tacitus died in June or July 276 CE, after only six or seven months as emperor. He may have died of natural causes or been killed by his own men. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Probus, who had been one of his generals and had been acclaimed emperor by his troops in Thrace. Probus was another capable and energetic leader who followed Aurelian's footsteps in restoring and defending the Roman Empire.
Evaluation by Ancient and Modern Historians
Aurelian was one of the most remarkable and influential emperors in Roman history. He saved the empire from collapse and disintegration during one of its darkest periods. He reunited its provinces under a single authority and restored its prestige and power among its enemies and allies. He reformed its currency and economy, promoted its religion and culture, and improved its administration and army. He earned the admiration and gratitude of his soldiers and subjects, as well as the respect and fear of his opponents.
Aurelian was also praised by most ancient historians who wrote about him. The 4th-century CE historian Eutropius called him "the most renowned of all emperors" , while the 5th-century CE historian Zosimus called him "the most prudent emperor" . The 6th-century CE historian John Malalas called him "a great man" , while the 7th-century CE historian John of Antioch called him "a man worthy of all praise" . The anonymous author of the Historia Augusta , a collection of biographies of Roman emperors, devoted a whole book to Aurelian and his deeds, describing him as "a most holy and upright emperor" .
However, Aurelian was not without flaws and critics. He was also a harsh and ruthless ruler who did not tolerate any opposition or disobedience. He executed or exiled many of his enemies, rivals, and conspirators, as well as some of his friends and allies. He also imposed heavy taxes and strict regulations on his subjects, causing some discontent and resistance. He was accused of being cruel, arrogant, and tyrannical by some of his contemporaries and later writers. The 4th-century CE historian Aurelius Victor called him "a man of excessive severity" , while the 5th-century CE historian Orosius called him "a savage beast" . The 6th-century CE historian Zonaras called him "a man of blood and iron" , while the 12th-century CE historian William of Tyre called him "a most wicked tyrant" .
Modern historians have generally been more favorable towards Aurelian, recognizing his achievements and challenges. They have also tried to balance his virtues and vices, his successes and failures, his strengths and weaknesses. They have acknowledged his role in ending the Crisis of the Third Century and paving the way for the reforms of Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) and Constantine I (r. 306-337 CE), who transformed the Roman Empire into a new political and religious entity. They have also compared him to other great emperors, such as Augustus (r. 27 BCE - 14 CE), Trajan (r. 98-117 CE), and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 CE), as well as to other famous conquerors, such as Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE), Julius Caesar (d. 44 BCE), and Napoleon Bonaparte (r. 1804-1815 CE).
Conclusion
In conclusion, Aurelian was a remarkable emperor who restored the Roman Empire from a state of near collapse to a state of glory and prosperity. He was a brilliant general who won many battles against various enemies, a visionary leader who initiated many reforms to improve the empire's condition, and a charismatic ruler who inspired loyalty and devotion among his followers. He was also a controversial figure who faced many challenges and oppositions, who showed both mercy and cruelty, who had both admirers and detractors. He left a lasting legacy and impact on the history of Rome and the world.
FAQs
Here are some frequently asked questions about Aurelian:
Q: When did Aurelian become emperor?
A: Aurelian became emperor in September or November 270 CE, after the death of Quintillus.
Q: How did Aurelian die?
A: Aurelian died in October or November 275 CE, after being assassinated by a conspiracy of some of his officials near Byzantium.
Q: Why was Aurelian called the Restorer of the World?
A: Aurelian was called the Restorer of the World because he reunited the Roman Empire after it had split into three rival states: the Gallic Empire in the west, the Palmyrene Empire in the east, and the central part under his control.
Q: What were Aurelian's main achievements?
A: Aurelian's main achievements were: defeating various barbarian tribes in Europe; building the Aurelian Walls in Rome; conquering the Palmyrene Empire in the east; reuniting the Gallic Empire in the west; restoring the Roman currency and economy; promoting the cult of Sol Invictus; reforming the Roman administration and army.
Q: What were Aurelian's main challenges?
A: Aurelian's main challenges were: facing invasions by various enemies, such as the Persians, the Goths, the Vandals, and others; dealing with rebellions by various rivals, such as Postumus, Zenobia, Tetricus, Florianus, and others; managing economic problems, such as inflation, corruption, and poverty; resolving religious conflicts, such as the rise of Christianity and other cults; coping with social unrest, such as riots and revolts; surviving conspiracies by some of his officials.
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